1. Tandem fit surculus arbor

(Finally, the sapling becomes a tree)

Maurice (1567–1625) succeeded his murdered father William of Orange in 1585 at the age of 18 as the highest military commander of the rebellious seven provinces. He emerged as a military genius and capable scholar. Under his leadership, the States army was reorganized and shaped into a flexible and well-drilled machine, achieving many victories.

Together with his cousin William Louis and his mentors, including Simon Stevin, classical ideas were applied and improved through mathematical principles.

The cooperation with the Advocate of Holland, Johan van Oldenbarnevelt, in matters of state proved very successful during the first ten years. Together, they shaped the seven rebellious provinces into a strong and prosperous independent state. Later, the two grew apart: Van Oldenbarnevelt paid for this with his life in 1619. After his death, Maurice was no longer able to reach the level of success achieved before the Twelve Years' Truce. He died in 1625 of liver disease.

  

2. Youth and Education

In 1567, William of Orange sent his pregnant wife, Anna of Saxony, to Germany. War had broken out in the Netherlands, and his son Philip William from an earlier marri­age had been abducted by the Duke of Alva. At the family castle in Dillenburg, near Bonn, Anna gave birth to Maurice.

The marriage between William of Orange and Anna of Saxony was unhappy. Anna could not adjust to the austere lifestyle in Germany. She began a relationship with the lawyer Rubens. When William found out, Rubens was imprisoned and Anna was de­clared insane. The marriage was annulled. Anna spent the rest of her life in a castle in Dresden. Maurice and his two sisters, Anna and Emilia, never saw their mother again.

Maurice lived in Germany with his uncle, John VI of Nassau. He studied together with his cousin William Louis at the University of Heidelberg. It was not until 1582 that the Republic was safe enough for Maurice to move to the Netherlands. He continued his studies at the University of Leiden.

Due to his father's assassination in 1584, Maurice’s education was interrupted. In the mid-1580s, he resumed his studies and made them part of his preparation for military leadership. Between 1590 and 1595, Maurice and William Louis made a significant intellectual contribution to the Republic through their research.

  

3. The Revolt

Stadtholder William of Orange led the revolt. He aimed to unify the provinces, but in 1579 the Netherlands split apart. The Protestant north continued the struggle under his leadership, while the Catholic south remained loyal to the King of Spain. By the time William of Orange was assassinated in 1584, only the provinces of Holland, Zeeland, Friesland, and Utrecht were still in rebellion.

States General

Representatives from the rebellious provinces formed the States General. After William of Orange’s death, they first approached the King of France and later the Queen of England to appoint a governor. However, these foreign envoys failed in their missions. As a result, the States General decided to govern independently.

At the age of eighteen, Maurice became stadtholder of Holland, Utrecht, and Zeeland. His cousin, William Louis, was already stadtholder of Friesland. Johan van Oldenbarnevelt served as the Grand Pensionary of Holland. He directed both domestic and foreign policy, while Maurice and William Louis led the military resistance. Together, the three men shaped the emerging Republic of the Seven United Netherlands.

Provinces

Each province appointed its own stadtholder. The stadtholder served as the highest-ranking officer of both the army and the navy.

  

4. The Army as a Machine

As soon as Maurice became commander-in-chief, he and his cousin William Louis began transforming the army into a well-oiled machine. Drawing on their knowledge of classical texts and mathematics, their approach was revolutionary for the 16th century. The mercenary army was converted into a standing army. During winter, the army was no longer disbanded, but instead reinforced garrison towns. Soldiers were trained in weapon handling and combat maneuvers. This allowed them to be drilled in following standardized commands "understood in all languages and dialects," as well as in marching, drilling, and parade maneuvers.

Weapons were standardized. Soldiers were no longer responsible for providing their own arms. The army produced its own high-quality weapons, including muskets and arquebuses. Ammunition was also standardized, and multiple cannon foundries were established to produce artillery in four fixed calibers. A formal training program for officers was introduced.

This training ensured uniformity in orders and missions. Officers learned to read maps and apply military tactics. Discipline increased. The army became stricter and more professional. Swearing, rape, and looting were harshly punished.

An engineering school was established in Leiden. These “ingenious minds” designed and built fortifications, such as bridges, ramparts, and bastions. Each garrison employed military engineers. Sieges were meticulously planned. Staff maps and tactical sketches were laid out in the command tent. Each phase of a siege was discussed like moves on a chessboard. Soldiers carried out the digging. They constructed trenches, laid attack paths, and built earthworks. For this, they used a combination tool called a "spade-axe" and received extra pay. Local farmers were also hired.

Fortresses were defended according to the Old Dutch system, a method using earthen walls, bastions, and ravelins, designed by Simon Stevin. Engineers oversaw both planning and construction. Thanks to this smart and mathematical approach to warfare, Maurice became known as the greatest strategist of his time.

  

5. Sieges
6. Maurice of Orange’s siege plan consisted of the following steps:
7. Information was gathered about the city's defenses and food supplies.
8. The cavalry quickly blocked all supply routes, the so-called investment, so the city could not receive new provisions.
9. Quarters were set up 1500 meters from the city walls, out of range of enemy can­nons.
10. These quarters were connected by an earthen or wooden wall with redoubts.
11. This line around the city served as a defense against enemy attacks.
12. Breach batteries were placed to bombard the city walls and create a breach.
13. Once a breach had been made, the city was stormed using wheeled storm bridges and ladders.
14. After the initial bombardments, the city was offered surrender on favorable terms. The garrison was then allowed to leave the city with weapons, baggage, and personnel. The longer the siege lasted, the less favorable the terms became.
15. Maurice also often used inundations (flooding) to block enemy relief armies.
16. If cannons could not create a breach, soldiers dug tunnels (approaches) and placed zigzag trenches to reach the city walls without being shot at.
17. Mines were placed near the moats and bastions to blow up parts of the fortificati­ons.
18. Engineers designed various tools to reach the city walls.

  

6. Mathematical Applications

The collaboration between Simon Stevin and Maurice was documented in the book Wisconstighe Ghedachtenissen, published in two volumes between 1605 and 1608. In it, Stevin, with contributions from Maurice, discusses trigonometry, goniometry, soil mechanics, navigation, astronomy, geometry, technical drawing, perspective, statics, and mechanics.

Maurice was primarily interested in the practical applicability of scientific results. Some examples:

- Field measurements had to be recorded to scale on paper.

- Maurice improved Dürer’s perspective frame by placing the frame on glass and tilting it, enabling more accurate perspective drawing.

- He designed a new horse bridle, with bit and reins positioned at a specific angle to make the horse more manageable and maneuverable.

- He implemented bookkeeping reforms for managing estates.

- In architecture, he advocated for equilateral symmetry, as seen in the churches of Willemstad and IJzendijke.

- In the garden design of the Prinsenhof in Vlissingen, he applied harmonious symmetry.

- Military strategies from ancient Rome were updated and adapted.

- Fortification design was approached mathematically.

In 1604, upon Maurice’s recommendation, Stevin was appointed quartermaster. Maurice had great respect for Stevin, and a close friendship developed, though not everyone approved of it. Stevin was part of committees focused on defense and navigation. Maurice also asked him to develop an educational program to train engineers quickly.

Stevin turned out to be the ideal person for this task, thanks to his blend of didactic skills and theoretical and practical knowledge. At the Duytsche Mathematique in Leiden, students received instruction in arithmetic, surveying, and fortification design, all in Dutch. Remarkably, Stevin placed great importance on the Dutch language, asserting that it was better suited for conveying knowledge than Greek, Latin, or any other modern language.

  

7. Status

William of Orange left Maurice mostly debts. Over the course of his career, however, Maurice managed to accumulate increasing wealth and property. He gained more and more titles and domains, which brought him higher income and greater prestige. It was not until the death of his eldest brother, Philip William, in 1618 that he inherited the title Prince of Orange.

He maintained a lavish court of around 200 people and lived in considerable luxury. His half-sisters were married off to noblemen from the French aristocracy. His younger sister Emilia proved difficult. She became engaged to a Portuguese nobleman who had neither wealth nor rank and who was also Catholic. Maurice initially opposed the match but eventually had to give in.

Maurice never married. He did, however, have a long-term relationship with Margaretha of Mechelen, a woman of minor nobility and Catholic faith, which made marriage impossible. The three children from this relationship were acknowledged, raised at court, and granted noble titles. In addition to this relationship, Maurice had several brief affairs, from which five children were born. They too received a proper upbringing. His younger half-brother, Frederick Henry, was trained to succeed him.

In addition to the title of Prince of Orange, Maurice held the following titles:

- Count of Nassau, Katzenelnbogen, Vianden, Diez, Lingen, Moers, Buren, and Leerdam

- Margrave of Veere and Vlissingen

- Baron of Breda, Grave, the Land of Cuijk, Diest, Grimbergen, Herstal, Ranendonck, Waasten, Arlay, Nozeroy, St. Vith, Daasburg, Lek, Polanen, Niervaart, and St. Maartensdijk

- Hereditary Burgrave of Antwerp and Besançon

  

8. Admiral-General

The Dutch East India Company (1602) and the West India Company (1621) were not just commercial enterprises, but also governing bodies acting on behalf of the States General and their admiral-general.

Due to his role as admiral-general, Maurice had a strong interest in printed maps and globes.

Some of the objectives of these companies included:

- Supplementing the war chest with profits from trade

- Disrupting the enemy's war machine

- Weakening the Habsburg Empire through warfare and overseas conquests

- Opening a new front overseas

- Voyages to the Indies and Nova Zembla

- Expeditions to the silver mines in Peru and Mexico

- Conquering and plundering Portuguese and Spanish settlements along the Atlantic coast

In the East, diplomacy was the main focus. In the West, military operations were dominant. Maurice benefited in two ways: as an investor, he received a share of the profits; and as admiral-general, he earned three to ten percent of the loot from captured ships or towns.

  

9. Twelve Years' Truce

In the years leading up to the Twelve Years' Truce, the relationship between Maurice and Oldenbarnevelt deteriorated. Maurice wanted to continue the war to weaken the enemy, while Oldenbarnevelt sought a truce to strengthen the economy. Politically and religiously, they increasingly opposed each other. When the foreign threat subsided, domestic problems came to the fore.

In 1618, after the death of Philip William, Maurice received the title Prince of Orange. Together with his supporters, he took strong action: Oldenbarnevelt and his allies were arrested, and Maurice's friends were given important positions in the government. At the Synod of Dordrecht, the Calvinist doctrine was further developed in a contra-remonstrant direction. In 1619, Oldenbarnevelt was sentenced to death as a traitor and executed on Maurice's orders.

When the war resumed in 1621, Maurice was largely on his own. His supporters called for the formation of a domestic front against the Spanish. This showed that a deep political and religious divide had emerged during the truce.

Maurice’s interest in printed wall maps and globes was largely determined by his role as Admiral-General. Although trade was the main goal in seeking direct trade routes, military aspects also played an important role.

  

10. The Last Years

When the Twelve Years' Truce expired in 1621, hostilities resumed. However, lit­tle had been prepared in advance. Maurice appeared weak and hesitated during the recapture of Twente and the Achterhoek. He opted for a defensive strategy. The resolute leadership of Johan van Oldenbarnevelt was sorely missed.

Spinola reinforced the Spanish army and launched attacks on key Dutch cities. In 1622, he laid siege to Bergen op Zoom, which Maurice was only barely able to relieve. In 1623, Spinola turned his attention to Breda. Maurice, too ill to lead the army himself, transferred command to his half-brother, Frederick Henry. Breda ultimately fell in May 1625.

Maurice was gravely ill, most likely due to liver cancer. He named Frederick Henry as his sole heir. For this to be accepted, Frederick Henry was required to marry; on April 4, 1625, he wed Amalia of Solms. Maurice's condition rapidly declined. He died on April 23, 1625, at the age of 58. A few months later, he was laid to rest in the family tomb in Delft.

  

11. Maurice in Flanders

In 1586, Axel (1) was captured during a night-time assault. Together with English troops under the command of Philip Sidney, the city was taken and then fortified. It marked the first military victory for the 19-year-old Maurice.

In 1600, the States General ordered the capture of Dunkirk, a notorious Spanish privateer stronghold, much to the dismay of both Maurice and William Louis. A southwestern wind forced Maurice to land an army of 12,000 infantry and 2,000 cavalry with 1,266 ships at Philippine. (2) From there, the troops advanced past Bruges toward Ostend (3).

A Spanish mutiny ended sooner than expected. Led by Albert and Isabella, the Spanish forces advanced rapidly toward Ostend. Maurice, who was moving his army along the beach from Ostend toward Nieuwpoort (4), was caught off guard. He sent out two regiments to block Albert at the bridge of Leffinge (5). The mission failed, and the regiments fled. Maurice abandoned the siege of Nieuwpoort and arranged his troops in three lines between Nieuwpoort and Ostend.

After hours of intense fighting and the final deployment of 300 cavalrymen, Maurice narrowly won the battle. He withdrew to Ostend, and the army was transported back to Holland by ship.

In 1601, Albert laid siege to Ostend. The city would not fall until 1604, when Spinola captured it at the cost of 80,000 lives.

In an attempt to relieve Ostend, Maurice landed at Cadzand in 1604 to conquer Sluis (6) and advance from there toward Ostend. However, he could not cross the Zwin due to heavy resistance and was first forced to secure his bridgehead to the east. After capturing Fort Saint Catherine and Philippine, he took IJzendijke (7), followed by Aardenburg (8) and Oostburg. He then began the siege of Sluis.

This siege lasted longer than expected. A counterattack by Spinola to relieve the city was repelled by William Louis. After several months, Sluis finally surrendered. Maurice was preparing to march on Ostend, but with the city’s fall, this was no longer necessary.

In 1591, Maurice suddenly appeared before the gates of Hulst (9) as a diversionary tactic. The city surrendered after only three days. A few years later, in 1596, Archduke Albert of Austria retook Hulst. It took him six weeks and heavy losses to force the city’s surrender.

During the Twelve Years’ Truce, Albert reinforced Hulst with major fortifications. In 1640, Frederick Henry made an unsuccessful attempt to recapture the city for the Dutch Republic. He finally succeeded in 1645.